The Entrance of Women to the Art Academies in Brazil and Mexico: a Comparative Overview [1]

Ursula Tania Estrada López

LÓPEZ, Ursula Tania Estrada. The Entrance of Women to the Art Academies in Brazil and Mexico: a Comparative Overview. 19&20, Rio de Janeiro, v. X, n. 2, jul./dez. 2015. https://www.doi.org/10.52913/19e20.X2.11b [Español]

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1. The entrance of women as regular art academy students involved a long process in which several moments can be detected: from the legislation advances allowing women to attend institutions of higher education, to their admission itself as regular students. The latter also implied that females students began to partake in the mechanisms of acknowledgement within the academies, such as the participation in exhibitions and annual competitions for students, the acquisition of stipends and travel grants for studying in Europe and the debates concerning their attending courses of nude drawing. Other important moments in this process were the critical reception of the work produced by these students and the circulation of their production in the art market, as well as their professional performance. Although similar processes and problems existed in the cases of different countries in Europe and America, each country and each region had its peculiarities. In this paper I will present a comparative overview of the cases of the National School of Fine Arts of Mexico (Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes, ENBA, known as Academy of San Carlos before 1867), and the National School of Fine Arts in Brazil (Escola Nacional de Belas Artes, ENBA, known as Imperial Academy of Fine Arts before 1890).[2]

2. In order to do this, I will concentrate on the admission of the first students, the spaces created specifically for them in the academies and their access to nude drawing courses.

The Panorama

3. Both in Brazil and Mexico, the entrance of women into the academy was accomplished without any groups of artists having to engage in an arduous struggle for admission, as it happened, for example, in France. Also, in the case of the two Latin American countries, the entrance of the first women into the academies occurred earlier than in other European countries such as Germany or France itself. While women started being admitted as regular students as of 1900 in France and 1914 in Germany,[3] in Mexico, the first students began attending the National School of Fine Arts (ENBA) in 1888, and four years later, in 1892, the first students entered the Brazilian ENBA. However, as in other countries, the access that female students had to education in the Mexican and Brazilian academies had its limitations. One of the clearest examples is the access to nude drawing courses and the consequent restriction to produce historical works, finding themselves constrained for several years to genres considered as minor ones.

4. There were several differences between the two countries as far as the admission of women to the academy was concerned. Whereas in Brazil this was hampered by the academic entry requirements established by the Brazilian ENBA in a context where the development of primary and secondary education for women was precarious, in the Mexican case, the admission occurred in a context in which the drive for women’s secondary and higher education had started to be favourable. In spite of some limitations concerning the trades and professions considered appropriate for women, the Mexican context may have nevertheless facilitated the entrance of women as regular students to the Mexican ENBA. Despite this, in Brazil women conquered artistic achievements earlier than in Mexico: in 1897, a woman, Julieta de França, was for the first time admitted to a life drawing course, and by the beginning of the 20th century, nude drawing had become a common practice for women students. Meanwhile, in Mexico, even during the first decade of the 20th century, the possibility of female students participating in a nude drawing course was still under discussion. In that same decade, the Mexican ENBA began to increase pressure for female students to attend that course, but they themselves and their families were reluctant to do so. Another academic achievement that the Brazilian female students conquered before their Mexican counterparts was receiving a prize to study in Europe; while in Brazil Julieta da França was awarded one in 1900, in Mexico it was  only in 1904 that such a prize was awarded to Otilia Rodriguez, who refused it because she had got married that same year.

The First Women Students

5. In the case of Mexico, the first known female student to enter the National School of Fine Arts (Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes) in 1888 was Dolores Soto. The first news we have of her is a mention in the newspaper El Partido Liberal, in which an article called “A Mexican painter” was published on June 21st of that year.[4] It reports a visit to the School in which the visitors unexpectedly came across a “beautiful girl handling the brush with great ease”, who “was the first to have worked admirably at the Academy of San Carlos”.[5]

6. Although no information was found on the events, issues and/or negotiations that allowed Soto to become the first female student of the ENBA, a quote from the same article makes us think that there was an interest on the part of its author to encourage other women to follow in Soto’s footsteps: “May the modest young woman excuse us, but we could not resist the desire to print her name. All Mexican women should know about her so she can serve them as a stimulus”.[6] In this regard, it is important to consider that as of the Bourbon Reforms in New Spain, and more veemently during the independence, both the Mexican state and some groups of the Mexican society became concerned with women’s education and their participation in the construction of a new nation, and so, accordingly, began promoting institutions which prepared women for such challenge. The most significant advances occurred during the second half of the 19th century, particularly after the promulgation of the Law of Public Instruction for the Federal District and Territories (1867), which established the creation of a High School for People of the Female Sex.[7] According to Lourdes Alvarado, the first high school for women opened in 1869 in Mexico City, and its task was not only to produce educated women who could, in turn, educate good citizens, but also to provide means for middle and lower class women to open their own establishments or work as labourers, even if they considered their role as wives and mothers as their primary purpose.[8] Also, in 1871, the Women’s School of Arts and Crafts was created in Mexico City, year in which the same institution for young men was opened.[9] Supplementary drawing courses were offered in addition to cast modelling, which represented an alternative to the ENBA’s training in drawing.

7. During the 1880s other important developments for the higher education of women took place. In a University project presented by Justo Sierra, Mexican Secretary of Education, he declared that women would be entitled to attend any courses in professional schools.[10] Alvarado notes that Sierra’s proposal received much criticism, and that the opinions against it urged it to strengthen the role of women as education professionals, for which they supposedly had a natural inclination, and “not to ‘masculinize’ Mexican women with unnecessary knowledge”,[11] which shows that, although spaces for the professionalization of women were beginning to open up, this was not always seen as desirable. In spite of this, there were other important developments such as the entrance of female students to the National Preparatory School (NPS). The first one of them was officially registered in 1882; according to Alvarado, this meant that women could have access to University studies.[12] This is particularly important in the case of ENBA’s female students, since according to the 1897 plan, the first four years of art studies would begin at the National Preparatory School, where subjects such as Mathematics, History, Languages and other sciences were taught in parallel to the preparatory courses in drawing and art history.[13] So far, data has been found on only two ENBA’s female students who were officially registered at the NPS.

8. So, when Dolores Soto began studying at the ENBA in 1888, there was already an opening for women in higher education institutions and there were ongoing debates about the education of women; at the same time, practical advances were made. The occupations which were seen as the most appropriate for women were those that suited the ideas of how they could contribute to the national project while not jeopardizing their roles as mothers and wives: teachers, doctors or other handicraft trades such as seamstresses, colorists in Lithography workshops or in photography studios.

9. As for the background of the female students entering the ENBA, there were some areas in the academy in which women were able to participate during the second half of the 19th century, such as annual exhibitions organized within the institution. Leonor Cortina notes that since the first exhibitions, which began to take place as of 1848, several women artists, amongst which the Sanromán sisters, Pilar de la Hidalga, Eulalia Lucio, Julia Escalante and Guadalupe Carpio exhibited their works. These women usually belonged to the old colonial aristocratic classes, or the families of distinguished figures of the cultural milieu or Mexican politics, which enabled them to afford private lessons with teachers of the Academy. Also, these women had no need to pursue a profession to make a living, so painting, in their cases, did not represent a professional activity.[14]

10. Cortina also states that between 1845 and 1861 three students applied to take drawing courses at the then called Academy of San Carlos,[15] although there is no knowledge of how these applications were met. The author also mentions that it is likely that some women took classes as non-regular students at the Academy, since some works by women classified as life drawing, figure drawing and chiaroscuro of plaster cast appear in the Academy’s 1850 and 1851 exhibition catalogues.[16] According to the same author, a similar situation occurred at the Academy of Education and Fine Arts in Puebla: two courses were opened for “teaching girls”: drawing, in 1850, and painting, in 1852.[17]

11. According to this information, it might seem that entrance of women to the Academy in Mexico might have been less hindered than in other countries, especially when you consider that secondary and higher education for women was a project encouraged by both the state and some intellectual groups, allowing women to gain ground in educational institutions previously dedicated exclusively to men.

12. In Brazil, women began to have access to higher education as of 1879, when their admission to medical courses was permitted, although in separate classrooms than those intended for men. However, this did not happen in other schools such as the Law School, where admitting women students had not yet been envisioned in 1885. It was not until 1892, with the establishment of the Republic, that the code with the requirements for higher education was approved and the admission of women in any superior courses was contemplated. Nevertheless, even though their admission was already regulated and approved by law, Brazilian women who aspired to a superior education would have to prove a satisfactory higher education, i.e., exams certified by the Pedro II School, an institution which, until 1884, was devoted exclusively to male education.[18] This situation represented a serious obstacle for Brazilian women, since the curriculum of female secondary education was considerably more focused on household disciplines than in science and humanities, part of the curriculum included in secondary-level curricula for men. Also, public schools for women were rare; an issue that, concerning their access to superior education, meant a disadvantage for the female population.[19]

13. This was the case for women who aspired to study as regular students at the ENBA, which only accepted favourable assessments issued by the ENBA itself or the Pedro II School. These female students had to prove sufficient knowledge on other academic disciplines such as Portuguese, French, Mathematics, Geography and History. This was in the interest of recognizing the artistic profession not as a technical training, but rather as a superior-level education.[20] In addition, the certificates issued by the Liceu de Artes e Ofícios were not accepted as valid by the ENBA, as shown in the case of Ernestina de Sá Ferreira, who was not admitted as a regular student in spite of having presented certificates of these disciplines obtained at the Liceu, where she had studied between 1881 and 1889. Thus, the difficulty in meeting this requirement limited the enrollment of women as regular students, but did not prevent them from attending free courses as of 1892, for which no proof of previous studies was required.[21]

14. This research has so far not found evidence, in the case of Mexico, that the lack of a secondary school education represented an obstacle to the admission of female students to the ENBA. Until 1897, the Law on School Education specifies that art education should begin at the National Preparatory School (NPS); there, courses of French, Italian, Spanish Grammar, Chemistry, Geography, Physics, Cosmography, Mathematics and Natural History were offered at the same time as preparatory courses of Figure, Ornamental, Landscape and Cast Drawing, Perspective and Anatomy of Forms.[22] However, as mentioned above, so far the research has found information of only two students registered at the ENBA who have met this requirement: the first one was Candelaria Manzano, who appears in the admission records of the NPS as a student of Fine Arts in 1899, although, according to a report addressed to the Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction, she probably entered in 1895. The other student is Otilia Rodriguez, who appears as registered at the NPS in 1897, but was not identified in the book as a student of Fine Arts. It is likely that not all women who began attending the ENBA during the 1890s were regular students; a review of the attendance forms in 1891 shows that the female students enrolled in drawing courses were registered as supernumerary students, that is, non-regular students who could attend classes taught at the ENBA with the only requirement of complying with the internal regulations.

Spaces for Women Students in the Academy

15. Separate courses for men and women seem to have been less categorical in Brazil and Mexico than in some European schools, since both schools allowed mixed classes, attended by both men and women since the beginning. In the case of Brazil, this may have been due to a lack of funds for building classrooms and hiring teachers exclusively for the female students rather than an Avant-vanguard ideology that explicitly pursued a mixed education. Besides, it seems that there were no discussions concerning a separate education for men and women within the Academy.[23] So far, it is known that, during their first years of entrance, female students in Mexico attended the same courses as men did and, in the XXII Academy Exhibition, their works were shown together with those of their classmates. However, exclusive spaces for women were created within the academies both in Brazil and Mexico some years after their admission; in the case of Brazil, as of 1896 there was an exclusive workshop for female students, with Rodolfo Amoedo and Henrique Bernardelli as professors, dedicated to teaching Drawing and Compositional Painting.[24] In Mexico, as of 1898, there was a class exclusively for young women, in which they were taught Master copying, Life Drawing and composition exercises.[25]

16. In both Mexico and Brazil, the opening of specific teaching spaces for women did not mean that the students could not enrol in other courses; in Brazil, there were female students enroled in courses of descriptive geometry and/or geometric design,[26] while in Mexico, they attended various courses in drawing,[27] figure painting and landscape, engraving and sculpture.

17. As far as the enrollment of female students in both Schools is concerned, during the first year of women’s entrance to the ENBA in Brazil, thirteen students were listed, while in Mexico there were six. Unlike in Mexico, in Brazil the number of female students attending the School fluctuated, declining in the second and third years and rising in the fourth year, while in the case of Mexico, a steady increase from one year to the next has been found so far to have been recorded.

18. As for the exhibition spaces, there is also a difference between Brazil and Mexico; apparently, in the Brazilian academy an exclusive exhibition space for the work of female students was created: the “hall for the ladies’ scholar productions”,[28] while in Mexico the works are organized according to the Academy’s courses, showing the works of students of both sexes in the same space, as mentioned above.

Access to Nude Drawing Courses

19. The entrance of female students to the life drawing courses, or live model, occurred in Brazil earlier than in Mexico. Access was allowed as of 1892, although it was not until 1897 that the first student, Julieta da França[29], attended, and the following year Nicolina Vaz joined her. Both students were sculptors and both were the first students to complete the training at the Academy. Ana Paula Simioni points to the difficulties these students may have faced when starting to venture into an area hitherto exclusively male and considered immoral for women. Simioni draws attention to the case of Julieta da França who, despite being an outstanding student and having insisted on being allowed to attend that course, often missed it and did not present the final exam. However, Simioni says that by the beginning of the 20th century, live model drawing had already become a reality for the female students, with the condition that male bodies were covered so as not to show the sex.

20. In the case of Mexico, ideas about female morality were also restrictive regarding the attendance of female students to nude drawing courses within the Academy, even more than in the case of Brazil. The first news we have about students first approaching the representation of the naked body, and which still needs to be confirmed, is the aforementioned “young ladies’ class”. Records establish that this class was created in 1898 and one of the exercises exhibited by students in the XXIII Academy Exhibition was an Odalisque. Angelica Velazquez suggests it could be a copy of Henri Decaisne’s Odalisque, acquired by the Academy in the mid-19th century and copied countless times by students. This painting shows a woman with a bare torso and belly, probably representing one of the first incursions of students in the study of the nude.

21. However, debates on the attendance of female students to the nude drawing course continued until the first decade of the 20th century. At least from 1903 onwards, some female students began attending the drawing and human body proportions course with Professor Daniel del Valle. But, at least until 1907, nude-drawing courses remained being attended exclusively by male students.

22. During this first decade of the 20th century, several debates arose around this topic within the ENBA, showing that in the case of Mexico it was the school that lobbied for the entrance of female students to the nude drawing class, while they themselves and their families were reluctant to do so. Luisa Barrios points out that this was probably due to moral restrictions assumed by the students themselves. Barrios mentions the case of Matilde Orellana who, in 1905, applied for a grant for her studies. In a letter from Rivas Mercado, Orellana was informed that she would be awarded the funding provided she attended all of the ENBA courses, including courses in anatomy and nude drawing[30]. Orellana's response was “that she would not object to attend the Anatomy course; as for the nude drawing, if the Ministry of Education did not spare her from attending, she would be in imperative need to withdraw her application.”[31] In the letter that the director of the ENBA sent to the Secretary of Public Instruction about Orellana’s case, he argues that “the curriculum presented some requirements that the applicant was not in a position to fulfil, for she would have to abandon certain ideas that are deeply rooted and incompatible” to the training in painting. In that same document, the director of the NBA complained that since the female students had begun to be admitted to the ENBA, they would not finish their studies due to their “reluctance to take nude drawing classes and Anatomy, the career’s most important courses” and, on this basis, he argued that grants should not be awarded to young women who wanted to study painting. Although the information provided by the then director of the ENBA, Antonio Rivas Mercado, needs to be corroborated, Orellana’s refusal allows for the identification of one of the reasons why the entrance of female students to this section of the academic education was delayed.

23. Elizabeth Fuente Rojas reinforces this argument by noting that the “moralizing cultural baggage” carried by women could be a factor that limited their artistic training, and provides two more facts to this discussion. On the one hand, once again a controversy involving Rivas Mercado’s demanding the students’ compulsory attendance to the nude drawing course was followed by the parents’ protest and their who denounced the problem to the President.[32] On the other hand, journalist Leopoldo Jasso Vidal “complained that women had been arbitrarily deprived of studying live models, ancient Greek models, anatomy, art history and perspective”.[33] Thus, the delayed entrance of female students in Mexico to nude courses might have been due to deeply rooted moral principles during the Porfiriato.

Access to Grants for Studying in Europe

24. Just as with the first female students to enter nude courses, it was also in Brazil that the first female student receiving a grant for studying in Europe is recorded. Simioni reports that the first to receive it was Julieta da Franca, in 1900. The author notes that the ENBA decided to grant the travel award that year to a sculptor, being da França the sole candidate. However, the jury found that the applicant was worthy of the prize she intended to win.[34] So, as noted by Simioni, da França becomes the first woman to win the most important internal competition of the Academy, and travels to Paris, then capital of the arts, on a grant. Also, this was accomplished without da França being treated differently or excluded for being a woman, for example, by requiring an authorization from the head of her family in order for her to be able to pursue her studies in Europe.[35]

25. In the case of Mexico, only the case of Otilia Rodriguez has been identified so far in this research. She was offered a grant in 1904, which she refused. According to Cortina, this rejection was due to the fact that she had just married her classmate Sóstenes Ortega that year.

26. Nevertheless, there are records of women who received grants from the government of Mexico to study painting in Europe before they began to be admitted as regular students to the ENBA. The earliest case we know of is that of Trinidad Carreño, mentioned by Flor Elena Sanchez[36]; she was granted an allowance by President Porfirio Diaz between 1879 and 1882, and studied in Madrid, Rome, Florence, Venice and Paris. Although Carreño was not an ENBA student, there is documentation indicating that she attended the Academy of San Fernando in Madrid in 1876,[37] a fact that could place her as one of the first Mexican women to receive an academic art education. Another artist in Europe with a grant was Rosa Palacios, of whom we only know that she was in Italy in 1880[38]. Another case was that of Carmen Duarte. According to Cortina, when she turned seventeen, her family sent her to study in Europe, where she remained until her twenty-ninth birthday[39]. Duarte was awarded an allowance by Porfirio Diaz between 1891 and 1893, and previously by the Government of Yucatan, although it remains unknown during which period she received this grant and why it was suspended in 1891; so far in this research, it is known that she studied in Rome.

27. Both Duarte and Carreño sent part of their artistic production to Mexico, which was then forwarded to the ENBA through the Office of Justice and Public Instruction. In the case of these two women, it is significant that neither were married when they travelled, nor were accompanied by a relative, i.e., they made their study journeys independently. In 1880, Trinidad Carreño requested that two of the nine paintings she had sent to Mexico be sold in order to cover her education expenses, receiving $200 pesos for them.[40] This is indicative that the artistic production of Carreño acted as a source of income.

Conclusions

28. The comparative overview of the admission of women to the academy in Brazil and Mexico allows us to begin to see similarities and differences between these processes in both countries of Latin America. This may help us to better understand the conditions of access to education and artistic professionalization for women in both countries, and to consider the specific processes of each case based on their comparison.

29. As from the outline presented here, I think that the comparison between the cases of Brazil and Mexico identifies certain contradictions concerning both of them. For example, while in Mexico the Academy opened to the participation of women before Brazil, acknowledged their participation in annual exhibitions since the mid-19th century and accepted the first students in 1888, it is in Brazil where some of the most important steps in the inclusion of women in the academies occur more swiftly, such as the entrance of female students to courses in nude drawing, in 1897, and the granting of a scholarship for a study trip to Europe, in 1900.

30. It is also interesting that these developments occurred in Brazil earlier than in Mexico, even though the entrance of regular female students at the ENBA became more difficult with the Brazilian school’s academic demands due to factors such as a shortage of secondary education for women in this country. Instead, while in Mexico there were policies to encourage primary, secondary and higher education for women throughout the 19th century, and although their participation in the Academy exhibitions was often encouraged by critics – who lamented that the women students would abandon their courses after getting married – it seems that the deeply rooted porfirian morality prevented Mexican female students from these achievements for too long. So, well into the 20th century, it is the female students themselves that are reluctant to join courses of life model drawing, as in the case of Matilde Orellana and of the families who sought to prevent their daughters’ attendance to nude courses. Also, there is the case of Otilia Rodriguez, who turned down a grant to study in Europe, favouring marriage instead of pursuing her studies and her professionalization as an artist.

31. Finally, I think it is important to emphasize that both Mexico and Brazil began to open academic art education for women before some European countries, such as France or Germany and, apparently, with less obstacles than in those.

Bibliographic references

ALVARADO, Maria de Lourdes. La educación superior femenina en México en el siglo XIX. México: UNAM - Plaza y Valdés, 2004.

ALVARADO, Maria de Lourdes. La escuela de artes y oficios para mujeres. Planes de estudio y población estudiantil. In A. de los Reyes (Ed.), La enseñanza del arte. México: UNAM-IIE, 2010, pp. 167-188.

BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Guía del archivo de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos, 1781-1910. México: UNAM-IIE. (2003).

BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Guía del archivo de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos. 1867-1907. (Vol. I y II). México: UNAM-IIE, 1993.

BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Historia de la Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes (Antigua Academia de San Carlos. 1781-1910). México: UNAM-ENAP, 2008.

BARRIOS, Luisa. Las mujeres en la plástica de la primera mitad del siglo XX. In SERRANO BARQUÍN, Héctor. Imagen y representación de las mujeres en la plástica mexicana: una aproximación a su presencia en las artes visuales y populares de 1880 a 1980. Toluca, Edo. de Mex: UAEM, 2005, pp. 63-132.

CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Ana Paula  Profissão Artista. Pintoras e Escultoras Acadêmicas Brasileiras. Sao Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, 2008.

CORTINA, Leonor. Pintoras mexicanas del siglo XIX. México: INBA-SEP, 1985.

FUENTE ROJAS, Elizabeth. Mujeres artistas en la Academia de San Carlos. Revista de la Coordinación de Estudios de Posgrado, Año 6, vol.10, 1990.

PRAMPOLINI, Ida. La crítica de arte en México en el siglo XIX. México: UNAM-IIE, 1997.

ROMERO DE TERREROS, Manuel (Ed.). Catálogo de las exposiciones de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos de México (1850-1898). México: UNAM-IIE, 1963.

SÁNCHEZ ARREOLA, Flora Elena. Catálogo del Archivo de la Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes. México: IIE-UNAM,1996.

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[1] Translation by Elena O’Neill.

[2] In this regard, it is pertinent to mention that in Mexico the research concerning this process is still in progress, so possibly part of the information contained in this work can be clarified as the research advances.

[3] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Ana Paula. Profissão Artista. Pintoras e Escultoras Acadêmicas Brasileiras. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, 2008, pp. 99 and 102.

[4] Information provided by Angélica Velázquez Guadarrama.

[5] PRAMPOLINI, Ida. La crítica de arte en México en el siglo XIX. México: UNAM-IIE, 1997, pp. 228-229.

[6] Ibidem.

[7] ALVARADO, Lourdes. Introducción. La educación superior femenina en México en el siglo XIX. México: UNAM - Plaza y Valdés, 2004, pp. 13-15.

[8] ALVARADO, Op. cit., pp. 166-167. She notes that in that discourse a difference was made between middle class and “first class” students: for the latter, a High School education would enable them to “form a good society” and “return to their families”. In both cases, it was emphasized that all students would be “faithful wives and respectful mothers” and their children “working, honest, brave and illustrated men, but above all, citizens who love their homeland”.

[9] ALVARADO, Ma. de Lourdes.  La escuela de artes y oficios para mujeres. Planes de estudio y población estudiantil. In: DE LOS REYES, Aurelio. La enseñanza del arte. México: UNAM-IIE, 2010, p. 167.

[10] ALVARADO, Lourdes. La educación superior femenina en México en el siglo XIX, Op. cit., pp. 260-261.

[11] Ibidem, p. 261.

[12] Ibidem, pp. 266-267.

[13] BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Historia de la Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes (Antigua Academia de San Carlos. 1781-1910). México: UNAM-ENAP, 2008, pp. 269-271.

[14] CORTINA, Leonor. Pintoras mexicanas del siglo XIX. México: INBA-SEP, 1985, pp. 29-31, pp. 67-69.

[15] Ibidem, p. 65. 

[16] Ibidem, p. 65.

[17] Ibidem, p. 171-172.

[18] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Op. cit., pp. 94-96.

[19] Ibidem, p. 91.

[20] Ibidem, p. 89.

[21] Ibidem, p. 96.

[22] BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Apéndice 2. Planes de Estudio. Historia de la Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes, op. cit., pp. 269-271.

[23] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Op. cit.,, p. 107.

[24] Ibidem, p. 108.

[25] ROMERO DE TERREROS, Manuel, ed. Catálogo de las exposiciones de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos de México (1850-1898). México: IIE-UNAM, 1963, pp. 612-613.

[26] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Op. cit., p. 52.

[27] The Drawing courses attended by the students were landscape drawing taken from prints, ornamental design of prints and figurative drawing from prints.

[28] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Op. cit., p. 109.

[29] Ibidem, p. 110-111.

[30] BÁEZ MACÍAS, Eduardo. Guía del archivo de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos. 1867-1907, vol. II. México: UNAM-IIE, 1993, p. 830.

[31] BARRIOS, Luisa. Las mujeres en la plástica de la primera mitad del siglo XX. SERRANO BARQUÍN, Op. cit., pp. 67-68.

[32] FUENTE ROJAS, Elizabeth. Mujeres artistas en la Academia de San Carlos.Revista de la Coordinación de Estudios de Posgrado. México, año 6, No. 10, sept.1990.

[33] Ibidem.

[34] CAVALCANTI SIMIONI, Op. cit., pp. 117-118.

[35] Ibidem, pp. 117-118.

[36] SÁNCHEZ ARREOLA, Flora Elena. Catálogo del Archivo de la Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes, tomo I, op. cit., p. XXV.

[37] BÁEZ MACÍAS, Guía del Archivo de la Antigua Academia de San Carlos (1867-1907), vol. I, Op. cit., p. 232.

[38] SÁNCHEZ, Op. cit., p. 47.

[39] CORTINA, Op. cit., p. 118.

[40] SÁNCHEZ, Op. cit., pp. 46 y ss.